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Mammalia
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This website is a demonstrator for the integration of several informatics technologies useful in "in-silico" biodiversity science: Scratchpads, Taverna Player and BioVeL infrastructure for executing workflows. This particular example makes use of population census data for Killer Whales and abundance data for Chinook Salmon in the north-east Pacific Ocean, which has kindly been provided by Antonio Velez-Espino of Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Please do not rely on the data or results information provided for any actual scientific, conservation or policy use. Mistakes herein (of which there are several) are solely the responsibility of the technical parties working on the technology integration. These include: Cardiff University, University of Manchester and the Natural History Museum, London.
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The Class Mammalia includes about 5000 species placed in 26 orders. Systematists do not yet agree on the exact number or on how some orders and families are related to others. The Animal Diversity Web generally follows the arrangement used by Wilson and Reeder (2005). Exciting new information, however, coming from phylogenies based on molecular evidence and from new fossils, is changing our understanding of many groups. For example, skunks have been placed in the new family Mephitidae, separate from their traditional place within the Mustelidae (Dragoo and Honeycutt 1997, Flynn et al., 2005). The Animal Diversity Web follows this revised classification. Whales almost certainly arose from within the Artiodactyla (Matthee et al. 2001; Gingerich et al. 2001). The traditional subdivision of the Chiroptera into megabats and microbats may not accurately reflect evolutionary history (Teeling et al. 2002). Even more fundamentally, molecular evidence suggests that monotremes (Prototheria, egg-laying mammals) and marsupials (Metatheria) may be more closely related to each other than to placental mammals (Eutheria) (Janke et al. 1997), and placental mammals may be organized into larger groups (Afrotheria, Laurasiatheria, Boreoeutheria, etc.) that are quite different from traditional ones (Murphy et al. 2001).
All mammals share at least three characteristics not found in other animals: 3 middle ear bones, hair, and the production of milk by modified sweat glands called mammary glands. The three middle ear bones, the malleus, incus, and stapes (more commonly referred to as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup) function in the transmission of vibrations from the tympanic membrane (eardrum) to the inner ear. The malleus and incus are derived from bones present in the lower jaw of mammalian ancestors. Mammalian hair is present in all mammals at some point in their development. Hair has several functions, including insulation, color patterning, and aiding in the sense of touch. All female mammals produce milk from their mammary glands in order to nourish newborn offspring. Thus, female mammals invest a great deal of energy caring for each of their offspring, a situation which has important ramifications in many aspects of mammalian evolution, ecology, and behavior.
Although mammals share several features in common (see Physical Description and Systematics and Taxonomic History), Mammalia contains a vast diversity of forms. The smallest mammals are found among the shrews and bats, and can weigh as little as 3 grams. The largest mammal, and indeed the largest animal to ever inhabit the planet, is the blue whale, which can weigh 160 metric tons (160,000 kg). Thus, there is a 53 million-fold difference in mass between the largest and smallest mammals! Mammals have evolved to exploit a large variety of ecological niches and life history strategies and, in concert, have evolved numerous adaptations to take advantage of different lifestyles. For example, mammals that fly, glide, swim, run, burrow, or jump have evolved morphologies that allow them to locomote efficiently; mammals have evolved a wide variety of forms to perform a wide variety of functions.
- Nowak, R. 1991. Walker's Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Vaughan, T., J. Ryan, N. Czaplewski. 2000. Mammalogy, 4th Edition. Toronto: Brooks Cole.
- Gingerich, P., M. ul Haq, I. Zalmout, I. Khan, M. Malkani. 2001. Origin of whales from early artiodactyls: Hands and feet of Eocene Protocetidae from Pakistan. Science, 293: 2239-2242.
- Dragoo, J., R. Honeycutt. 1997. Systematics of mustelid-like carnivores. Journal of Mammalogy, 78: 426-443.
- Janke, A., X. Xu, U. Arnason. 1997. The complete mitochondrial genome of the wallaroo (Macropus robustus) and the phylogenetic relationship among Monotremata, marsupialia, and Eutheria. Proc. National Academy of Sciences, 94: 1276-1281.
- Matthee, C., J. Burzlaff, J. Taylor, S. Davis. 2001. Mining the mammalian genome for artiodactyl systematics. Systematic Biology, 50: 367-390.
- Murphy, W., E. Eizirik, S. O'Brien, O. Madsen, M. Scally, C. Douady, E. Teeling, O. Ryder, M. Stanhope, W. de Jong, M. Springer. 2001. Resolution of the early placental mammal radiation using Bayesian phylogenetics. Science, 294: 2348-2351.
- Teeling, E., O. Madsen, R. Van Den Bussche, W. de Jong, M. Stanhope, M. Springer. 2002. Microbat paraphyly and the convergent evolution of a key innovation in Old World rhinolophoid microbats. Proc. National Academy of Sciences, 99: 1431-1436.
- Wilson, D., D. Reeder. 1993. Mammal Species of the World. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- Flynn, J., J. Finarelli, S. Zehr, J. Hsu, M. Nedbal. 2005. Molecular phylogeny of the Carnivora (Mammalia): assessing the impact of increased sampling on resolving enigmatic relationships. Systematic Biology, 54/2: 317-337.
- Klima, M., W. Maier. 1990. Body Structure. Pp. 58-84 in B Grzimek, ed. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals, Vol. 1, 1 Edition. New York: Mcgraw-Hill.
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | ©1995-2012, The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors |
Source | http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mammalia.html |
Mammalia is prey of:
Aquila chrysaetos
Buteo regalis
Buteo swainsoni
Camponotus
Noctuidae
Pyralidae
Blattaria
Vespidae
Silphidae
Dermestes carnivorus
Scarabaeidae
Drosophilidae
Prochyliza azteca
Trigona
Phaenicia eximia
Hemilucilia segmentaria
Cochliomyia macellaria
Serpentes
Aves
Thamnophis sirtalis
Lampropeltis triangulum
Butorides virescens
Anas fulvigula
Buteo lineatus
Pandion haliaetus
Falco biarmicus
Herpetotheres cachinnans
Grus japonensis
Larus californicus
Larus canus
Tyto alba
Otus asio
Otus trichopsis
Surnia ulula
Micrathene whitneyi
Strix varia
Asio flammeus
Corvus corax
Corvus caurinus
Spermophilus lateralis
Sciurus niger
Sciurus carolinensis
Onychomys arenicola
Ursus maritimus
Ursus arctos
Lontra canadensis
Mustela vison
Bassariscus astutus
Nasua nasua
Panthera onca
Canis rufus
Panthera pardus
Cerdocyon thous
Lycaon pictus
Otocyon megalotis
Alligator mississippiensis
Paleosuchus trigonatus
Puma concolor
Didelphis marsupialis
Antechinus swainsonii
Dasycercus cristicauda
Dasyurus maculatus
Oncifelis geoffroyi
Oncifelis colocolo
Prionailurus viverrinus
Ardea alba
Asturina nitida
Ictinia mississippiensis
Otus kennicottii
Ciccaba nigrolineata
Pulsatrix perspicillata
Galago alleni
Cebus olivaceus
Papio hamadryas
Hylobates klossii
Eliomys quercinus
Hydromys chrysogaster
Heloderma horridum
Ailuropoda melanoleuca
Helarctos malayanus
Tremarctos ornatus
Pseudalopex griseus
Pseudalopex gymnocercus
Pseudalopex vetulus
Vulpes cana
Vulpes chama
Leopardus tigrinus
Lynx pardinus
Oreailurus jacobita
Prionailurus planiceps
Galidia elegans
Mungotictis decemlineata
Bdeogale nigripes
Herpestes edwardsii
Herpestes ichneumon
Suricata suricatta
Crocuta crocuta
Lutrogale perspicillata
Arctonyx collaris
Melogale everetti
Melogale moschata
Melogale personata
Conepatus chinga
Conepatus semistriatus
Galictis cuja
Ictonyx striatus
Martes melampus
Martes zibellina
Mustela altaica
Mustela kathiah
Mustela putorius
Mustela sibirica
Bassaricyon gabbii
Prionodon pardicolor
Sus verrucosus
Tatera indica
Chaetophractus villosus
Crocidura leucodon
Cardioderma cor
Macroderma gigas
Megaderma lyra
Vampyrum spectrum
Prionailurus iriomotensis
Canis lupus dingo
Canis lupus familiaris
Papio anubis
Papio cynocephalus
Papio papio
Papio ursinus
Based on studies in:
USA: California, Cabrillo Point (Grassland)
USA: California, Coachella Valley (Desert or dune)
Costa Rica (Carrion substrate)
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- L. D. Harris and L. Paur, A quantitative food web analysis of a shortgrass community, Technical Report No. 154, Grassland Biome. U.S. International Biological Program (1972), from p. 17.
- L. F. Jiron and V. M. Cartin, 1981. Insect succession in the decomposition of a mammal in Costa Rica. J. New York Entomol. Soc. 89:158-165, from p. 163.
- Polis GA (1991) Complex desert food webs: an empirical critique of food web theory. Am Nat 138:123155
- Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2006. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed February 16, 2011 at http://animaldiversity.org. http://www.animaldiversity.org
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | Cynthia Sims Parr, Joel Sachs, SPIRE |
Source | http://spire.umbc.edu/fwc/ |
Herbivores digest toxic plant compounds: mammals
Many herbivorous mammals are capable of safely ingesting various toxic plant compounds in part thanks to biotransformation enzymes.
"Many mammalian herbivores continually face the possibility of being poisoned by the natural toxins in the plants they consume. A recent key discovery in this area is that mammalian herbivores are capable of regulating the dose of plant secondary compounds (PSCs) ingested…
"The majority of wild mammalian herbivores confront food items which contain a myriad of chemical compounds that are potentially poisonous. Plant secondary compounds (PSCs) are arguably some of the most abundant and diverse naturally occurring toxins on earth. Although some herbivores behaviourally circumvent ingestion of marked quantities of PSCs either through food manipulation or avoidance (Dearing 1997), many herbivorous mammals regularly ingest foods with PSCs that if over-ingested could have serious consequences including death…Thus, herbivores have evolved physiological mechanisms for processing PSCs as well as behavioural feedback mechanisms to permit feeding on plants with toxins while avoiding ill effects…
"The specialist's constraint: Few mammalian herbivores have evolved the ability to forage nearly exclusively from a single species of plant (Freeland & Janzen 1974). Surprisingly, the plant species consumed by specialists tend to be low in nutrients and well-defended by PSCs (Shipley et al. 2006). Specialist herbivores are extraordinary because they are capable of taking in large doses of plant toxins with no obvious ill effects. The biotransformation enzymes permitting a diet rich in PSCs are just being discovered (Ngo et al. 2000; Ngo et al. 2006; Haley et al. 2007a,b). Not surprisingly many of these enzymes are in the diverse superfamily of the cytochrome P450 enzymes." (Torregrossa & Dearing 2009:48-9)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Torregrossa AM; Dearing MD. 2009. Nutritional toxicology of mammals: regulated intake of plant secondary compounds. Functional Ecology. 23(1): 48-56.
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/8552e646efd41a23528655b5b2a6dd36 |
Mammalia preys on:
fruit
canopy--leaves
flowers
Insecta
leaves and trunks
roots
trunk
fungi
macrocrustacea
Aythya affinis
Actinopterygii
Mytilus
Littorina
Acmaea
Carcinus
Tautogolabrus
Arthropoda
Plantae
detritus
hyperparisitoids
Orchelimum vulgare
Crossoptilon mantchuricum
Gallicolumba luzonica
Sorex dispar
Didelphis marsupialis
Akodon cursor
Based on studies in:
Malaysia (Rainforest)
USA: Iowa, Mississippi River (River)
USA: Maine, Gulf of Maine (Littoral, Rocky shore)
USA: California, Coachella Valley (Desert or dune)
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- C. A. Carlson, Summer bottom fauna of the Mississippi River, above Dam 19, Keokuk, Iowa, Ecology 49(1):162-168, from p. 167 (1968).
- D. C. Edwards, D. O. Conover, F. Sutter, Mobile predators and the structure of marine intertidal communities, Ecology 63(4):1175-1180, from p. 1178 (1982).
- J. L. Harrison, The distribution of feeding habits among animals in a tropical rain forest, J. Anim. Ecol. 31:53-63, from p. 61 (1962).
- Polis GA (1991) Complex desert food webs: an empirical critique of food web theory. Am Nat 138:123155
- Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2006. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed February 16, 2011 at http://animaldiversity.org. http://www.animaldiversity.org
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | Cynthia Sims Parr, Joel Sachs, SPIRE |
Source | http://spire.umbc.edu/fwc/ |
Whiskers detect details: mammals
The whiskers of some mammals help detect detailed surface textures via tapered ends.
"The role of facial vibrissae (whiskers) in the behavior of terrestrial mammals is principally as a supplement or substitute for short-distance vision. Each whisker in the array functions as a mechanical transducer, conveying forces applied along the shaft to mechanoreceptors in the follicle at the whisker base. Subsequent processing of mechanoreceptor output…allows high accuracy discriminations of object distance, direction, and surface texture. The whiskers of terrestrial mammals are tapered and approximately circular in cross section…We argue that a tapered whisker provides some advantages for tactile perception (as compared to a hypothetical untapered whisker), and that this may explain why the taper has been preserved during the evolution of terrestrial mammals…
"…We suggest that one of the main advantages of whisker taper, at least for active whiskers, is to provide a small diameter at the whisker tip, to allow for a finer probe of small surface features." (Williams & Kramer 2010:e8806)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Williams CM; Kramer EM. 2010. The advantages of a tapered whisker. PLoS One. 5(1): e8806.
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/ac25f486be55759924ded42adeaff95a |
Overexploitation, habitat destruction and fragmentation, the introduction of exotic species, and other anthropogenic pressures threaten mammals worldwide. In the past five centuries at least 82 mammal species have gone extinct. Currently, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has listed about 1000 species (roughly 25% of all known mammals), as being at some risk of extinction. Several factors contribute to a species' vulnerability to human-induced extinction. Species that are naturally rare or require large home ranges are often at risk due to habitat loss and fragmentation. Species that are seen to threaten humans, livestock, or crops may be directly targeted for extirpation. Those species that are exploited by humans as a resource (e.g., for their meat or fur) but are not domesticated are often depleted to critically low levels. Finally, global climate change is adversely affecting many mammals. The geographic ranges of many mammals are shifting, and these shifts often correlate with changes in local temperatures and climate. As temperatures rise, which is especially pronounced in polar regions, some mammals are unable to adjust and are consequently at risk of losing their environment.
- Reichholf, J. 1990. Endangerment and Conservation. Pp. 178-191 in B Grzimek, ed. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals, Vol. 1, 1st Edition. New York: Mcgraw-Hill.
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | ©1995-2012, The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors |
Source | http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mammalia.html |
Neutrophils are a type of granulocyte that all mammals posses. Neutrophils are crucial to protecting mammals against infections. Because of this, 50 - 80% of white cells circulating in the blood are neutrophils. Neutrophils are produced in the bone marrow of mammals. The average adult Homo Sapiens manufactures 100 billion neutrophils per day.
Neutrophils take 1 week to manufacture, yet once they are released into the bloodstream of mammals, they only survive for 12 hourse at longest. Because of this, the bones of most mammals have vast reserves of neutrophils in the case of an infection.
Neutrophils are 12 - 15 micrometers long. As they are granulocytes, their nucleus is divided into 2 - 5 lobes.
- http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/410999/neutrophil
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | Theodore Ganea, Theodore Ganea |
Source | No source database. |
Footpads manage increasing body mass: mammals
The footpads of mammals maintain functional integrity as body mass increases through changes in geometry and material properties.
"In most mammals, footpads are what first strike ground with each stride. Their mechanical properties therefore inevitably affect functioning of the legs; yet interspecific studies of the scaling of locomotor mechanics have all but neglected the feet and their soft tissues. Here we determine how contact area and stiffness of footpads in digitigrade carnivorans scale with body mass in order to show how footpads’ mechanical properties and size covary to maintain their functional integrity. As body mass increases across several orders of magnitude, we find the following: (i) foot contact area does not keep pace with increasing body mass; therefore pressure increases, placing footpad tissue of larger animals potentially at greater risk of damage; (ii) but stiffness of the pads also increases, so the tissues of larger animals must experience less strain; and (iii) total energy stored in hindpads increases slightly more than that in the forepads, allowing additional elastic energy to be returned for greater propulsive efficiency. Moreover, pad stiffness appears to be tuned across the size range to maintain loading regimes in the limbs that are favourable for long-bone remodelling. Thus, the structural properties of footpads, unlike other biological support-structures, scale interspecifically through changes in both geometry and material properties, rather than geometric proportions alone, and do so with consequences for both maintenance and operation of other components of the locomotor system" (Chi & Roth 2010)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Chi KJ; Roth VL. 2010. Scaling and mechanics of carnivoran footpads reveal the principles of footpad design. J R Soc Interface.
- Bates KL. 2010. The bigger the animal, the stiffer the 'shoes'. Duke University Office of News & Communications [Internet],
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/879241de2fe3565cfa69a56698054967 |
Some mammal species are considered to have a detrimental impact on human interests. Many mammals that eat fruit, seeds, and other types of vegetation are crop pests. Carnivores are often considered to be a threat to livestock or even to human lives. Mammals that are common in urban or suburban areas can become a problem if they cause damage to automobiles when they are struck on the road, or can become household pests. A few species coexist exceptionally well with people, including some feral domesticated mammals (e.g., rats, house mice, pigs, cats, and dogs). As a result of either intentional or unintentional introductions near human habitation, these animals have had considerable negative impacts on the local biota of many regions of the world, especially the endemic biota of oceanic islands.
Many mammals can transmit diseases to humans or livestock. The bubonic plague is perhaps the most well-known example. Plague is spread via fleas that are carried by rodents. Rabies, which can be transmitted among mammalian species, is also a significant threat to livestock and can kill humans as well.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (bites or stings, causes disease in humans , carries human disease); crop pest; causes or carries domestic animal disease ; household pest
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | ©1995-2012, The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors |
Source | http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mammalia.html |