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This website is a demonstrator for the integration of several informatics technologies useful in "in-silico" biodiversity science: Scratchpads, Taverna Player and BioVeL infrastructure for executing workflows. This particular example makes use of population census data for Killer Whales and abundance data for Chinook Salmon in the north-east Pacific Ocean, which has kindly been provided by Antonio Velez-Espino of Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Please do not rely on the data or results information provided for any actual scientific, conservation or policy use. Mistakes herein (of which there are several) are solely the responsibility of the technical parties working on the technology integration. These include: Cardiff University, University of Manchester and the Natural History Museum, London.
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The Class Mammalia includes about 5000 species placed in 26 orders. Systematists do not yet agree on the exact number or on how some orders and families are related to others. The Animal Diversity Web generally follows the arrangement used by Wilson and Reeder (2005). Exciting new information, however, coming from phylogenies based on molecular evidence and from new fossils, is changing our understanding of many groups. For example, skunks have been placed in the new family Mephitidae, separate from their traditional place within the Mustelidae (Dragoo and Honeycutt 1997, Flynn et al., 2005). The Animal Diversity Web follows this revised classification. Whales almost certainly arose from within the Artiodactyla (Matthee et al. 2001; Gingerich et al. 2001). The traditional subdivision of the Chiroptera into megabats and microbats may not accurately reflect evolutionary history (Teeling et al. 2002). Even more fundamentally, molecular evidence suggests that monotremes (Prototheria, egg-laying mammals) and marsupials (Metatheria) may be more closely related to each other than to placental mammals (Eutheria) (Janke et al. 1997), and placental mammals may be organized into larger groups (Afrotheria, Laurasiatheria, Boreoeutheria, etc.) that are quite different from traditional ones (Murphy et al. 2001).
All mammals share at least three characteristics not found in other animals: 3 middle ear bones, hair, and the production of milk by modified sweat glands called mammary glands. The three middle ear bones, the malleus, incus, and stapes (more commonly referred to as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup) function in the transmission of vibrations from the tympanic membrane (eardrum) to the inner ear. The malleus and incus are derived from bones present in the lower jaw of mammalian ancestors. Mammalian hair is present in all mammals at some point in their development. Hair has several functions, including insulation, color patterning, and aiding in the sense of touch. All female mammals produce milk from their mammary glands in order to nourish newborn offspring. Thus, female mammals invest a great deal of energy caring for each of their offspring, a situation which has important ramifications in many aspects of mammalian evolution, ecology, and behavior.
Although mammals share several features in common (see Physical Description and Systematics and Taxonomic History), Mammalia contains a vast diversity of forms. The smallest mammals are found among the shrews and bats, and can weigh as little as 3 grams. The largest mammal, and indeed the largest animal to ever inhabit the planet, is the blue whale, which can weigh 160 metric tons (160,000 kg). Thus, there is a 53 million-fold difference in mass between the largest and smallest mammals! Mammals have evolved to exploit a large variety of ecological niches and life history strategies and, in concert, have evolved numerous adaptations to take advantage of different lifestyles. For example, mammals that fly, glide, swim, run, burrow, or jump have evolved morphologies that allow them to locomote efficiently; mammals have evolved a wide variety of forms to perform a wide variety of functions.
- Nowak, R. 1991. Walker's Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Vaughan, T., J. Ryan, N. Czaplewski. 2000. Mammalogy, 4th Edition. Toronto: Brooks Cole.
- Gingerich, P., M. ul Haq, I. Zalmout, I. Khan, M. Malkani. 2001. Origin of whales from early artiodactyls: Hands and feet of Eocene Protocetidae from Pakistan. Science, 293: 2239-2242.
- Dragoo, J., R. Honeycutt. 1997. Systematics of mustelid-like carnivores. Journal of Mammalogy, 78: 426-443.
- Janke, A., X. Xu, U. Arnason. 1997. The complete mitochondrial genome of the wallaroo (Macropus robustus) and the phylogenetic relationship among Monotremata, marsupialia, and Eutheria. Proc. National Academy of Sciences, 94: 1276-1281.
- Matthee, C., J. Burzlaff, J. Taylor, S. Davis. 2001. Mining the mammalian genome for artiodactyl systematics. Systematic Biology, 50: 367-390.
- Murphy, W., E. Eizirik, S. O'Brien, O. Madsen, M. Scally, C. Douady, E. Teeling, O. Ryder, M. Stanhope, W. de Jong, M. Springer. 2001. Resolution of the early placental mammal radiation using Bayesian phylogenetics. Science, 294: 2348-2351.
- Teeling, E., O. Madsen, R. Van Den Bussche, W. de Jong, M. Stanhope, M. Springer. 2002. Microbat paraphyly and the convergent evolution of a key innovation in Old World rhinolophoid microbats. Proc. National Academy of Sciences, 99: 1431-1436.
- Wilson, D., D. Reeder. 1993. Mammal Species of the World. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- Flynn, J., J. Finarelli, S. Zehr, J. Hsu, M. Nedbal. 2005. Molecular phylogeny of the Carnivora (Mammalia): assessing the impact of increased sampling on resolving enigmatic relationships. Systematic Biology, 54/2: 317-337.
- Klima, M., W. Maier. 1990. Body Structure. Pp. 58-84 in B Grzimek, ed. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals, Vol. 1, 1 Edition. New York: Mcgraw-Hill.
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Rights holder/Author | ©1995-2012, The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors |
Source | http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mammalia.html |
As a group, mammals eat an enormous variety of organisms. Many mammals can be carnivores (e.g., most species within Carnivora), herbivores (e.g., Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla), or omnivores (e.g., many primates). Mammals eat both invertebrates and vertebrates (including other mammals), plants (including fruit, nectar, foliage, wood, roots, seeds, etc.) and fungi. Being endotherms, mammals require much more food than ectotherms of similar proportions. Thus, relatively few mammals can have a large impact on the populations of their food items.
Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food ; filter-feeding
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates, Piscivore , Eats eggs, Sanguivore , Eats body fluids, Insectivore , Eats non-insect arthropods, Molluscivore , Scavenger ); herbivore (Folivore , Frugivore , Granivore , Lignivore, Nectarivore ); omnivore ; planktivore ; mycophage ; coprophage
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Rights holder/Author | ©1995-2012, The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors |
Source | http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mammalia.html |
Optimal branching of vascular vessels minimizes work: mammals
Vascular and respiratory vessels in mammals minimize the amount of biological work required to operate by being arranged hierarchically.
"The vessels found in mammalian cardiovascular and respiratory systems are usually arranged in hierarchical structures and a distinctive feature of this arrangement is their multi-stage division or bifurcation. At each generation, the characteristic dimension of the vascular segments will generally become smaller, both in length and diameter." (Barber and Emerson 2008: 179)
"The branching structures found in mammalian cardiovascular and respiratory systems have evolved, through natural selection, to an optimum arrangement that minimizes the amount of biological work required to operate and maintain the system. The relationship between the diameter of the parent vessel and the optimum diameters of the daughter vessels was first derived by Murray (1926) using the principle of minimum work. This relationship is now known as Murray’s law and states that the cube of the diameter of a parent vessel equals the sum of the cubes of the diameters of the daughter vessels." (Barber and Emerson 2008: 180)
[This mathematical structure is also found in trees and other organisms that exhibit branching]
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Barber RW; Emerson DR. 2008. Optimal design of microfluidic networks using biologically inspired principles. Microfluidics and Nanofluidics. 4: 179-191.
- Murray CD. 1926. The physiological principle of minimum work. I. the vascular system and the cost of blood volume. PNAS. 12: 207-214.
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Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
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Wetting agent reduces surface tension: mammals
Alveoli in mammalian lungs manage surface tension through use of a wetting agent whose concentration varies with alveolar expansion.
"The individual alveoli have somewhat the same problem as the pair of lungs--why doesn't one alveolus expand to the point of explosion…before the others begin to inflate?…Lungs filled with air take more force to inflate than do lungs deliberately filled with a salt solution. With air inside, the outward pressure difference across the alveolar walls must work against tissue and the surface tension of the layer of water inside the alveoli. The latter opposes the formation of additional air-water interface as the alveoli expand. The surface tension, though, is drastically reduced by a wetting agent secreted by cells in the alveolar walls. But, and here's the trick, the effectiveness of the wetting agent depends on its concentration, which falls as the alveoli expand. Thus the force of surface tension rises sharply as an alveolus inflates, opposing further inflation. As a result of this wetting agent (or surfactant or detergent), the alveolar wall has a functionally curved stress-strain plot…and the requisite nonlinear elasticity." (Vogel 2003:53)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Steven Vogel. 2003. Comparative Biomechanics: Life's Physical World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 580 p.
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Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
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Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius ater may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius borealis feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius brevis may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius coenosus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius conspurcatus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius consputus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius constans may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius contaminatus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius depressus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Other: sole host/prey
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius distinctus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius equestris feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius erraticus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius fasciatus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius fimetarius may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius foetens may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius foetidus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius fossor feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius granarius feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius haemorrhoidalis feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius ictericus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius lapponum feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius lividus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius merdarius may be found in fresh or older dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius nemoralis may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius paykulli may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius porcus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius prodromus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius pusillus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius rufipes may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius rufus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius scrofa feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius sordidus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius sphacelatus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / carrion / dead animal feeder
larva of Aphodius subterraneus feeds on dead Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius zenkeri may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / pathogen
Aspergillus flavus infects Mammalia
Animal / pathogen
Aspergillus fumigatus infects Mammalia
Animal / pathogen
Aspergillus niger infects Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Bellardia feeds on dung/debris decaying matter of Mammalia
Animal / dung saprobe
fruitbody of Calocybe constricta is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of urine of Mammalia
In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite / blood sucker
adult of Cimex lectularius sucks the blood of Mammalia
Animal / pathogen
cells of Cryptococcus (bot.) infects Mammalia
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite / sweat sucker
imago (female) of Drymeia vicana sucks the sweat of Mammalia
Animal / rests in
Entamoeba muris rests inside large intestine of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Eristalis feeds on dung/debris wet manure of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Euheptaulacus sus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Euheptaulacus villosus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / associate
larva of Fannia canicularis is associated with nest of Mammalia
Animal / carrion / dead animal feeder
larva of Fannia scalaris feeds on dead rotting meat of Mammalia
Animal / pathogen
Cryptococcus yeast anamorph of Filobasidiella neoformans infects Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Geotrupes mutator feeds on dung/debris buried dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Geotrupes pyrenaeus feeds on dung/debris buried dung of Mammalia
Other: sole host/prey
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Geotrupes spiniger feeds on dung/debris buried dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Geotrupes stercorarius feeds on dung/debris buried dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Geotrupes stercorosus feeds on dung/debris buried dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung saprobe
fruitbody of Hebeloma radicosum is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of nest of Mammalia
Animal / dung saprobe
sporangiophore of Helicostylum piriforme is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Helophilus pendulus feeds on dung/debris wet manure of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Heptaulacus testudinarius may be found in dry dung of Mammalia
Animal / associate
larva of Hydrotaea capensis is associated with cadaver of Mammalia
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite / sweat sucker
imago (female) of Hydrotaea irritans sucks the sweat of Mammalia
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite
larva of Lucilia sericata ectoparasitises wound of Mammalia
Other: minor host/prey
Animal / dung associate
larva of Musca domestica inhabits dung of Mammalia
Animal / associate
larva of Neoascia is associated with wet manure of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Neoascia podagrica feeds on dung/debris wet manure of Mammalia
Animal / carrion / dead animal feeder
larva of Onthophagus coenobita feeds on dead buried corpse of Mammalia
Animal / dung saprobe
ascoma of Onygena corvina is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of hair of Mammalia
Other: major host/prey
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Oxyomus sylvestris may be found in dung in fields of Mammalia
Other: minor host/prey
Animal / dung associate
larva of Sarcophaga incisilobata inhabits dung of Mammalia
Animal / parasite
larva of Sarcophaga melanura parasitises Mammalia
Other: minor host/prey
Plant / resting place / on
larva of Sarcophila latifrons may be found on carrion of Mammalia
Animal / carrion / dead animal feeder
fruitbody of Schizophyllum commune feeds on dead dead horn of Mammalia
Other: unusual host/prey
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite / blood sucker
imago of Stomoxys calcitrans sucks the blood of Mammalia
Other: sole host/prey
Animal / dung saprobe
gregarious, semi-immersed perithecium of Subbaromyces splendens is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Syritta pipiens feeds on dung/debris wet manure of Mammalia
Animal / carrion / dead animal feeder
Trox sabulosus feeds on dead dead horn of Mammalia
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Rights holder/Author | BioImages, BioImages - the Virtual Fieldguide (UK) |
Source | http://www.bioimages.org.uk/html/Mammalia.htm |
Sweating aids thermoregulation: mammals
The sweat glands of many mammals aid thermoregulation through evaporative cooling.
"Sweat glands play an extremely important part in temperature control. Shaped like a tube, knotted at the bottom and opening out of the epidermis at a 'pore', sweat glands secrete a colourless liquid which evaporates on the surface of the skin removing excess heat…There are two kinds of sweat glands: apocrine, associated with hairy skin, and eccrine, associated with smooth. Apocrine glands seem to be concerned mainly with producing scented secretions, and are progressively replaced in the more advanced mammals - gorillas, chimpanzees, and especially man - with eccrine glands, whose secretion dilutes and spreads that of the apocrine glands." (Foy and Oxford Scientific Films 1982:79)
"From the evidence of comparative mammalian physiology, we suggest that the very common apocrine sweat gland is not primitive but is both specialized and efficient as a cooling organ in an animal with a heavy fur coat and relatively slow movement. The remarkable thermal eccrine sweating system of humans probably evolved in concert with bipedalism, a smooth hairless skin, and adaptation to open country by the ancestors of H. sapiens." (Folk and Semken 1991:185)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Foy, Sally; Oxford Scientific Films. 1982. The Grand Design: Form and Colour in Animals. Lingfield, Surrey, U.K.: BLA Publishing Limited for J.M.Dent & Sons Ltd, Aldine House, London. 238 p.
- Folk GE; Semken A. 1991. The evolution of sweat glands. International Journal of Biometeorology. 35(3): 180-186.
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White blood cells adhere closely: mammals
White blood cells of mammals adhere tightly to target cells by increasing their surface area using arm-like projections and shape deformation.
"Dr. Shasha Klibanov, Dr. Jonathan Lindner, and graduate student Jack Rychack of the University of Virginia are studying how leukocytes bind at high speeds to areas of infection. Physicians want to use microbubbles in combination with ultrasound to locate tumors or inflammation in the body. The microbubbles appear as a highlighted signal within the tissues or organ, enhancing the image. However, the microbubbles have low binding ability, so pass the target site and don't adhere efficiently. The researchers found that leukocytes have 'arms' that help bind them to the surface of an infection, and the blood cells deform to increase the surface contact area, increasing their adhesion to the infection. The researchers have modified the microbubbles to increase their surface area and adding micron projections to mimic leukocyte arms." (Courtesy of the Biomimicry Guild)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
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The ecological roles, or niches, filled by the nearly 5000 mammal species are quite diverse. There are predators and prey, carnivores, omnivores, and herbivores, species that create or greatly modify their habitat and thus the habitat and structure of their communities [e.g., beavers damming streams, large populations of ungulates (Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla) grazing in grasslands, moles digging in the earth]. In part because of their high metabolic rates, mammals often play an ecological role that is disproportionately large compared to their numerical abundance. Thus, many mammals may be keystone predators in their communities or play important roles in seed dispersal or pollination. The ecosystem roles that mammals play are so diverse that it is difficult to generalize across the group. Despite their low species diversity, compared to other animal groups, mammals have a substantial impact on global biodiversity.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; pollinates; creates habitat; biodegradation ; soil aeration ; keystone species
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Rights holder/Author | ©1995-2012, The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors |
Source | http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mammalia.html |
Filaments adopt geometric symmetry: mammals
The formation and dynamics of the keratin intermediate filaments in mammalian stratum corneum may be the result of membrane templating.
"Keratin is tough, adaptable, flexible, resistant to water, and provides a good protective covering for the rest of the body. These qualities also make it an ideal material for the moulding of claws, nails and hooves…" (Foy and Oxford Scientific Films 1982)
"A new model for stratum corneum keratin structure, function, and formation is presented. The structural and functional part of the model, which hereafter is referred to as 'the cubic rod-packing model', postulates that stratum corneum keratin intermediate filaments are arranged according to a cubic-like rod-packing symmetry with or without the presence of an intracellular lipid membrane with cubic-like symmetry enveloping each individual filament. The new model could account for (i) the cryo-electron density pattern of the native corneocyte keratin matrix, (ii) the X-ray diffraction patterns, (iii) the swelling behavior, and (iv) the mechanical properties of mammalian stratum corneum. The morphogenetic part of the model, which hereafter is referred to as 'the membrane templating model', postulates the presence in cellular space of a highly dynamic small lattice parameter (<30 nm) membrane structure with cubic-like symmetry, to which keratin is associated. It further proposes that membrane templating, rather than spontaneous self-assembly, is responsible for keratin intermediate filament formation and dynamics. The new model could account for (i) the cryo-electron density patterns of the native keratinocyte cytoplasmic space, (ii) the characteristic features of the keratin network formation process, (iii) the dynamic properties of keratin intermediate filaments, (iv) the close lipid association of keratin, (v) the insolubility in non-denaturating buffers and pronounced polymorphism of keratin assembled in vitro, and (vi) the measured reduction in cell volume and hydration level between the stratum granulosum and stratum corneum. Further, using cryo-transmission electron microscopy on native, fully hydrated, vitreous epidermis we show that the subfilametous [sic] keratin electron density pattern consists, both in corneocytes and in viable keratinocytes, of one axial subfilament surrounded by an undetermined number of peripheral subfilaments forming filaments with a diameter of ~8 nm." (Norlén and Al-Amoudi 2004:715)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Norlen, L.; Al-Amoudi, A. 2004. Stratum Corneum Keratin Structure, Function, and Formation: The Cubic Rod-Packing and Membrane Templating Model. Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 123(4): 715-732.
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Specialized teeth wear down but remain effective: grazing animals
The teeth of grazing mammals wear down but not smooth because of a side-by-side layered arrangement of enamel, dentine, and cementum.
"Grazing has perhaps elicited the most dramatic dental specializations in mammals. About twenty million years ago, grasses and grasslands appeared on earth. Grass (and, incidentally, wood) provides poor fodder. It yields little energy relative to its mass, so a grazer has to process huge volumes. Much of that energy comes as chemically inert cellulose, which mammals hydrolyze only by enlisting symbiotic microorganisms in rumen or intestine. It's full of abrasive stuff like silicon dioxide and has lengthwise fibers that demand cross-wise chewing rather than rapid tearing. Long-lived grazers, concomitantly, have especially special teeth, with their components typically layered side by side, as in figure 16.5b. This odd-looking arrangement ensures that, while teeth may wear down…they won't wear smooth. The harder material (enamel, most particularly) will continue to protrude as the softer materials (cementum and dentine) wear down between them." (Vogel 2003:333)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Steven Vogel. 2003. Comparative Biomechanics: Life's Physical World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 580 p.
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Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
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